Complete Geotechnical Engineering Glossary

⭕ Glossary of Pile Types

🏗️ Cast-in-Situ Piles

Piles constructed by drilling or excavating a hole in the ground and then filling it with concrete—cast directly on-site.

Cast-in-Situ Pile
A concrete pile formed by pouring fresh concrete into a bored or excavated hole at the construction site. Reinforcement cages are placed before concreting.
Micropile
Small-diameter drilled and grouted pile with steel reinforcement, can be used in restricted access, slope works or low headroom areas.
Caisson Pile
Large-diameter drilled shaft often constructed by hand-digging, used in rocky or hard ground.
Bored Pile
Cast-in-situ deep foundation formed by drilling a hole and filling it with reinforced concrete.

🧱 Precast Concrete Piles

Factory-made reinforced or prestressed concrete piles driven into the ground using pile drivers.

Precast Concrete Pile
A concrete pile manufactured off-site in standard lengths and sections, then transported and driven into the ground using a hydraulic hammer or vibro hammer.
Spun Pile (Centrifugally Cast Pile)
Hollow, high-strength precast pile made by spinning concrete in a mold—commonly used in residential and commercial buildings.
Square Pile
Solid square-section precast pile commonly used for shallow to medium depths, especially in low-rise building foundations.
Prestressed Concrete Pile
A precast pile with prestressed reinforcement to reduce cracking during handling and driving.
Driven Pile
Generic term for piles installed by hammering or vibrating into position, usually applicable to all precast piles.
Screw/Helical Pile

Steel shaft with helical plates twisted into the ground, ideal for tension and compression loads.

📏 Steel Sheet Piles

Thin interlocking steel sections driven into the ground to form continuous walls for earth retention or water cutoff.

Sheet Pile
Thin, interlocking metal (steel, vinyl, or plastic) sections installed vertically into the ground to support excavations or form cofferdams.
Larssen Sheet Pile
A popular U-shaped steel sheet pile with a locking mechanism that provides water resistance and strength.
Box Sheet Pile
Two U-sections welded together to form a box section for higher strength and stiffness, typically used in marine works.
Interlock
The groove and tongue joint along the edge of each sheet pile that allows continuous connection to adjacent sheets.
Driving Shoe
Reinforced tip of a sheet pile to facilitate easier penetration into dense or hard ground.

🔩 Other Precast or Modular Piles

H-Pile (Steel H-Section)
A structural steel section in an H-shape used for driven deep foundations, suitable for very dense or hard soils.
Tubular Steel Pile
Steel pipe pile driven into the ground, may be open- or closed-ended, and filled with concrete if needed.
Timber Pile
Wooden pile used in low-load applications or temporary works; rarely used today in modern engineering.
Composite Pile
A pile made of more than one material, such as precast concrete on top and steel at the bottom, joined for performance in different soil conditions.
Segmental Micropile
Small-diameter precast or preassembled pile segments, often used in constrained areas with overhead limits.

⚙️ Common Terms Across Pile Types

Pile Cap
A reinforced concrete slab that connects multiple piles and distributes loads from the structure above.
Cut-Off Level
The designed level where the top of the pile is trimmed after installation to match the structure’s foundation level.
Refusal Criteria
A condition during driving where further penetration is not feasible or required, used to verify pile bearing.
Toe
The bottom tip of the pile that transfers load into deeper, stronger soil or rock strata.
Pile Driving Hammer
Equipment (drop hammer, diesel, hydraulic) used to install driven piles by delivering repeated blows.

🪖 General Geotechnical Terms

Bearing Capacity

The maximum load a soil can support without failure.

Shear Strength

Resistance of soil to shearing forces; key for slope and foundation design.

Consolidation

Time-dependent settlement of soil due to expulsion of pore water.

Permeability

Ability of soil to allow water flow through its pores.

Retaining Wall

Structure that holds back soil or rock from a building, structure, or area.

Active Earth Pressure

Pressure exerted by soil when it moves away from a retaining structure.

Passive Earth Pressure

Pressure exerted by soil resisting movement into it.

Factor of Safety (FoS)

Margin against failure in design, often >1.5 for slopes or foundations.

Geotechnical Investigation

Site-specific subsurface exploration using drilling, sampling, and lab testing.

Working Load

The maximum load a pile or foundation element is designed to carry safely under normal service conditions. It is usually calculated by applying a factor of safety to the ultimate load capacity.

🏗️ Micropile Glossary

Micropile (Mini Pile / Pin Pile)

Small-diameter deep foundation pile typically ≤300mm, installed by drilling and grouting, often with reinforcement.

Micropile
A slender, drilled and grouted pile with steel reinforcement, used for load transfer in restricted-access or low-headroom areas.
Grouted Micropile
A type of micropile where grout is injected to bond the steel reinforcement to surrounding soil or rock.
Drill-and-Grout Method
A two-stage process involving borehole drilling followed by grout injection, used in micropile installation.
Pressure Grouting
Injection of grout under pressure to ensure full encapsulation of the steel bar and bond with surrounding ground.
Reinforcing Bar (Rebar)
Steel bar inserted into the micropile borehole to provide tensile capacity and structural reinforcement.
Casing
Temporary steel tube used to support the borehole during drilling, especially in collapsing or water-logged soils.
Bond Zone
The length of micropile embedded into load-bearing soil or rock to transfer loads effectively.
Debond Zone
Section of the pile where load transfer is minimized or prevented—commonly above the bond zone.
Low Headroom Piling
Specialized piling technique using compact rigs in height-restricted environments such as basements or existing buildings.

🧩 Bored Pile (Drilled Shaft)

Large-diameter cast-in-situ piles formed by drilling and concreting in place.

Bored Pile
A deep foundation constructed by boring a hole and filling it with reinforced concrete, typically 450mm to 1800mm in diameter.
Temporary Casing
Steel tube inserted during drilling to prevent borehole collapse in soft or unstable soils.
Slurry Stabilization (e.g., Bentonite)
Use of bentonite or polymer slurry to support the sidewalls of boreholes during excavation.
Tremie Concrete
Method of placing concrete underwater or into a borehole via a tremie pipe to avoid segregation and contamination.
Reinforcement Cage
Prefabricated steel structure lowered into the bored hole prior to concreting to provide strength.
End Bearing
Load transfer mechanism where pile loads are carried to strong soil or rock at the base of the pile.
Skin Friction (Shaft Resistance)
Resistance along the surface of the pile shaft contributing to load transfer.
Overbreak
Enlargement or collapse of borehole beyond intended diameter during drilling, often requiring remedial work.
Base Cleaning
Removal of loose debris or soil at the base of the borehole before concrete placement to ensure quality.

🕳️ Caisson Pile (Hand-Dug Caisson)

Deep foundation typically constructed by hand excavation using a caisson ring method, common in rocky or congested urban areas.

Caisson Pile
A hand-dug or machine-dug shaft, usually circular, supported by precast concrete rings and filled with reinforced concrete.
Hand-Dug Caisson
Manually excavated shaft, usually 600–1500mm in diameter, used in constrained urban sites or hilly terrain.
Caisson Ring (Precast Ring)
Circular precast concrete segment used to support the shaft walls during excavation.
Circular Shaft
Vertical cylindrical hole excavated as a pile, typically associated with caissons.
Bell Out / Belled Base
Widened section at the base of the caisson to increase bearing area and reduce settlement.
Groundwater Intrusion
Entry of water into the caisson shaft, often requiring dewatering or sealing measures.
Shaft Lining
Reinforcement or support used to prevent collapse of shaft walls during caisson excavation.
Access Pit
Entry point or opening for manual excavation and caisson installation, sometimes requiring shoring.
Dewatering
Process of removing water from the caisson shaft to enable dry working conditions.

📐 General Piling Terms

Pile Load Test
Field test performed to verify the load-bearing capacity of a pile (static or dynamic).
Working Load
Maximum load expected to be carried by the pile under normal service conditions.
Ultimate Load Capacity
The maximum load a pile can carry before failure, combining shaft friction and end bearing.
Negative Skin Friction (Down Drag)
Downward drag on a pile from settling soil, reducing its effective capacity.
Pile Cut-Off Level
Designed elevation at which the pile is terminated or cut to connect with the structure.
Pile Group Effect
Interaction between piles in a group that affects their individual and overall performance.

🏗️ Basic Civil Works

🧱 Substructure & Foundations

Foundation
The structural base that transfers loads from a building to the ground; includes shallow and deep foundations.
Pile Foundation
A deep foundation system using driven or bored piles to transfer building loads to deeper, stable soil layers.
Micropile
Small-diameter, high-capacity drilled and grouted pile often used in restricted access areas or for retrofitting.
Footing
Concrete base under columns or walls that spreads structural loads; includes pad footings, strip footings, and raft slabs.
Pile Cap
Thick concrete slab that connects multiple piles to distribute structural loads to them.
Raft Foundation (Mat Foundation)
Large concrete slab spread across a building's footprint, used when soil has low bearing capacity.
Underpinning
Strengthening or deepening existing foundations to prevent settlement or support additional loads.

🧱 Retaining & Slope-Related Structures

Retaining Wall
Structure that holds back earth or prevents soil movement, often used in hilly residential sites.
Gabion Wall
Retaining system made from wire mesh boxes filled with rocks, allowing drainage and flexibility.
Contiguous Bored Pile Wall
A series of closely spaced bored piles used as a retaining structure, often in basements or cut slopes.
Soil Nail Wall
Stabilized slope or wall reinforced with steel bars (nails) grouted into the soil mass.
Sheet Pile Wall
Interlocking steel or plastic sheets driven into the ground for earth retention or water cutoff.

🌍 Site Preparation & Earthworks

Site Clearance
Initial removal of vegetation, debris, and topsoil to prepare for construction.
Earthwork
The process of excavating, grading, cutting, or filling earth to achieve required levels and foundation platforms.
Cut and Fill
Process of removing (cut) and adding (fill) soil to achieve flat platforms on sloping ground.
Backfilling
Refilling of excavated areas, usually around foundations or retaining walls.
Compaction
Mechanical densification of soil or fill to increase bearing strength and reduce settlement risk.
Blinding Layer
Thin layer of lean concrete or sand placed before foundation construction to level the surface and protect reinforcement.

🧰 Drainage & Groundwater Control

Subsoil Drain
Buried perforated pipe wrapped in filter media to collect and discharge groundwater from behind retaining walls or under slabs.
Surface Drainage
Channels, gutters, or swales that guide rainwater runoff away from buildings or slopes.
Weep Hole
Small openings in retaining structures to allow water to escape and relieve hydrostatic pressure.
Sump Pit
A pit or tank used to collect water for pumping, commonly found in basements or low-lying buildings.
Dewatering
Temporary removal of groundwater using pumps or wells during foundation or basement construction.

🔍 Monitoring & Site Instruments

Inclinometer
Instrument installed vertically in boreholes to monitor lateral ground movement over time.
Settlement Marker
Reference point installed on a structure or ground surface to monitor vertical movement (settlement).
Piezometer
Device used to measure pore water pressure in the soil or groundwater levels.

⚙️ Concrete & Structural Elements

Grade Slab
Concrete slab cast directly on the ground, forming the floor of the building.
Column & Beam
Structural elements that transfer vertical (columns) and horizontal (beams) loads within a building.
Reinforcement (Rebar)
Steel bars or mesh embedded in concrete to improve tensile strength.
Formwork
Temporary mold used to shape and support wet concrete until it hardens.
Curing
Process of maintaining moisture in freshly placed concrete to ensure proper strength development.

🚧 General Construction Terms

Setting Out
The process of marking out building positions and levels on site according to drawings.
Datum Level
A fixed reference elevation point from which all vertical measurements are made.
Plinth Beam
A horizontal beam at or above ground level, connecting columns and supporting walls.
Void Form
A form or space left intentionally beneath structures to accommodate soil movement or reduce pressure.
Crack Monitor
A device used to monitor crack movement in walls or slabs during and after construction.

🧱 Retaining Wall Glossary

Soldier Pile Wall

A system using steel H-piles installed in drilled holes, supported by lagging (e.g. timber).

Timber Lagging

Horizontal timber members placed between soldier piles to retain soil.

Sheet Pile

Interlocking steel or plastic sections driven into the ground to retain earth or water.

Contiguous Bored Pile (CBP)

Series of closely spaced bored piles forming a continuous wall.

Contiguous Micro Pile Wall

Retaining wall using tightly spaced micropiles for shoring or support.

Contiguous Caisson

A wall made from adjacent hand-dug caissons forming a continuous retaining barrier.

Circular Cofferdam

A circular retaining structure used to isolate work areas below water or soil.

Temporary Ground Anchor

Steel tendons drilled and grouted into the ground to support temporary shoring.

Permanent Ground Anchor

Long-term soil or rock anchors that hold up retaining structures permanently.

Secant Bored Pile Wall

Interlocking bored piles (hard-soft or hard-hard) forming watertight or load-bearing walls.

Rubble Wall

A rubble wall is built using irregular stones or broken rock, laid with or without mortar. It is mainly used for light-duty retaining, landscaping, or aesthetic purposes in rural or low-cost settings.

Mass Concrete Wall

A mass concrete wall is a thick, gravity-based retaining wall made from plain (unreinforced) concrete. It resists soil pressure through its own weight and is suitable for short walls on firm ground.

Crib Wall

Crib walls are modular retaining structures made from interlocking concrete or timber frames filled with rock. They allow natural drainage and are commonly used for road embankments and landscaped slopes.

RE Wall (Reinforced Earth Wall / MSE Wall)

An RE wall uses layers of soil reinforcement (like geogrids or steel strips) combined with a facing panel to form a stable retaining structure. It is ideal for tall, engineered walls in infrastructure and highway projects.

L-Shape Cantilever Retaining Wall

An L-shape cantilever retaining wall is a reinforced concrete wall with an upright stem and a base slab shaped like the letter “L.” It resists earth pressure by leveraging the weight of backfill on the base slab and transfers lateral forces through bending and shear into the foundation.

🌏 Earthworks

🚜 General Earthworks Terms

Earthworks
Engineering operations involving the movement, removal, filling, or shaping of soil or rock to prepare a construction site.
Site Clearance
Initial removal of vegetation, debris, and topsoil from a construction area before earthwork begins.
Cut and Fill
The process of excavating (cut) material from high ground and using it to fill low-lying areas to achieve desired levels.
Bulk Excavation
Large-scale removal of earth materials to prepare the ground for structures or platforms.
Topsoil
The uppermost layer of soil, usually fertile and removed during site clearance and stored for reuse or landscaping.

📏 Excavation Types

Open Excavation
Surface-level excavation typically used for foundations, basements, or road construction.
Trench Excavation
Narrow excavation made for utilities, pipes, or pile foundations, usually deeper than it is wide.
Deep Excavation
Any excavation that extends significantly below ground level, often requiring shoring or retaining structures.
Over-excavation
Removal of soil beyond design limits, often due to instability, soft zones, or design modifications.
Spoil
Excess excavated material not reused on site; often stored temporarily in a spoil heap or hauled away.\

🏔️ Filling & Compaction

Backfill
Material used to refill an excavated area, such as behind a retaining wall or around foundations.
Engineered Fill
Selected and compacted material used in layers to meet specific strength, density, and drainage requirements.
Compaction
Process of densifying soil or fill using rollers, rammers, or vibratory plates to increase strength and reduce settlement.
Relative Compaction
A percentage measure of in-situ soil density compared to its maximum laboratory dry density.
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
The moisture level at which a soil achieves its maximum dry density during compaction.
Dry Density
The weight of soil particles in a given volume of soil, excluding water content.

⛏️ Slope & Embankment Works

Embankment
A raised earth structure built from compacted soil or rock, used for roads, railways, or elevated platforms.
Cut Slope
An artificial slope created by excavating existing ground to lower the site level or expose rock.
Fill Slope
A slope formed from deposited fill material, typically compacted in layers.
Benching
A technique of terracing cut slopes in horizontal steps to improve stability and reduce erosion.
Slope Protection
Measures (like vegetation, geotextiles, gabions) applied to prevent erosion or slope failure.

💧 Drainage & Water Management

Subsoil Drain
Underground drainage system used to remove water from the soil to maintain dry working conditions or prevent saturation.
Surface Drainage
Channels, swales, or slopes designed to redirect rainwater or surface runoff away from construction zones.
Sedimentation Control
Practices used to prevent erosion and manage runoff, such as silt fences, sediment basins, and check dams.
Dewatering
Removal of water from soil or excavation areas, typically via pumps or drainage systems.

📐 Earthwork Support & Stabilization

Shoring
Temporary support system used to prevent soil collapse in excavations or trenches.
Bracing
Internal supports (e.g., struts, walers) used in deep excavations to resist soil or water pressure.
Reinforced Earth
Soil strengthened with geotextiles or geogrids to increase its structural integrity.
Slope Stability Analysis
Geotechnical assessment used to determine the risk of slope failure or landslides.

🔍 Quality Control & Testing

CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
Test to evaluate the load-bearing capacity of soil or base materials for roads or platforms.
Plate Load Test
Field test to determine the bearing capacity of soils and degree of settlement under a given load.
Field Density Test (FDT)
Measures in-situ soil density to verify compaction adequacy (e.g., sand cone test, nuclear gauge).
Proctor Test
Laboratory test to determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content for compaction.

⚠️ Common Earthwork Issues

Erosion
Wearing away of exposed earth by wind, rain, or surface runoff.
Soft Ground
Soil with low shear strength, requiring soil improvement or stabilization before construction.
Differential Settlement
Uneven ground movement that can cause cracking or instability in structures.
Heaving
Upward movement of soil due to moisture expansion, often in clay-rich soils.

☑️ Pile Testing and Load Testing Glossary

🔩 General Testing Categories

Pile Testing
Procedures used to evaluate the structural integrity, load-bearing capacity, and performance of piles in the ground.
Static Load Test (SLT)
A test where a known load is gradually applied to a pile to measure its settlement response and determine capacity.
Dynamic Load Test (DLT)
Test using a falling weight to impart force onto the pile, measuring wave response to estimate capacity (e.g., PDA test).
Lateral Load Test
Measures pile deflection under horizontal loading to assess lateral load capacity (common for retaining walls and offshore piles).
Uplift (Tension) Test
Evaluates the pile’s resistance to pulling forces (important for structures resisting overturning or buoyant forces).
Proof Load Test
A simplified test applying a predetermined load to verify construction quality or compliance with specifications.

🏗️ Static Load Test Components

Reaction Frame
Steel frame or beam anchored to tension piles or kentledge used to apply downward force onto the test pile.
Kentledge
Heavy concrete blocks or steel weights used as a counterweight in static load testing.
Jack and Hydraulic Pump
Equipment used to apply controlled axial load (upward or downward) on the pile during testing.
Dial Gauge
Precision mechanical instrument used to measure pile head settlement during loading stages.
Settlement
The vertical displacement of a pile head under an applied load—used to evaluate performance and serviceability.
Load Increment
Predefined step of increasing load applied during testing, typically following national or international standards.
Ultimate Load
Maximum load the pile can carry before failure or unacceptable movement occurs.
Safe Working Load
Load considered acceptable for long-term use, usually derived by applying a factor of safety to the ultimate load.

📐 Dynamic Load Testing Terms

PDA (Pile Driving Analyzer)
Equipment used in dynamic load testing to record strain and acceleration in real time during a hammer blow.
Signal Matching Analysis (CAPWAP)
Computer-based simulation used in PDA testing to interpret measured wave signals and back-calculate pile capacity.
Hammer Blow
Impact load delivered by a drop weight in dynamic testing, producing waves analyzed to evaluate capacity.
Strain Gauge
Device that measures strain in pile during dynamic loading to calculate stress and displacement.
Accelerometer
Sensor mounted on the pile to measure vibration or acceleration during dynamic testing.

📊 Lateral Load Testing Terms

Lateral Reaction System
A setup using tension piles or anchors to apply a horizontal load to the test pile.
Horizontal Jack
Hydraulic jack installed horizontally to push against a reaction system and apply lateral load.
Deflection Gauge
Instrument placed perpendicular to the pile to measure lateral movement under load.
p-y Curve
Graph representing soil resistance (p) versus lateral pile deflection (y), used in lateral load analysis.
Passive Soil Resistance
Lateral pressure exerted by soil resisting pile movement; key in lateral load calculations.

🛠️ Integrity & Nondestructive Testing

Low Strain Integrity Test (PIT)
A non-destructive test using a small hammer impact and sensor to detect pile continuity and length.
Cross-Hole Sonic Logging (CSL)
Method using ultrasonic waves sent between access tubes inside bored piles to detect defects.
Thermal Integrity Profiling (TIP)
Test that uses heat signatures from curing concrete to detect defects and verify concrete quality.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)
A method to measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves through concrete to assess integrity.
Echo Method
Interprets reflected stress waves to assess pile continuity, length, and integrity.

⚙️ Typical Pile Testing Equipment

Hydraulic Jack
Device used to apply load during static or lateral tests (manual or powered).
Load Cell
Electronic device that accurately measures the applied load on the pile during testing.
Data Logger
Digital device that records test data (e.g., load, deflection, time) during automated or manual testing.
Settlement Dial Indicator
Precision mechanical gauge fixed on reference beams to measure pile movement.
Reference Beam
A stable horizontal beam anchored independently of the test pile, used as a fixed point for measuring movement.
Anchor Pile / Reaction Pile
Piles installed to resist uplift forces during tension or static load testing.

📏 Relevant Standards & Guidelines

BS EN 1997 (Eurocode 7)
European standard for geotechnical design and pile testing procedures.
MS 1199
Malaysian Standard for testing of piles using static methods.
ASTM D1143 / D3689 / D3966
Common American testing standards for compression, tension, and lateral load tests on piles.

🕵🏽 Site Investigation & Exploration

Geotechnical Investigation
A systematic process to assess subsurface conditions through drilling, sampling, and testing for engineering design.
Desk Study
Preliminary review of maps, records, geological data, and site history to plan the field investigation.
Trial Pit
Shallow excavation made to visually inspect and sample near-surface soils.
Borehole Drilling
The creation of vertical holes in the ground using rotary or percussion rigs to collect soil samples or install instruments.
Rotary Wash Boring
A borehole drilling technique using water or drilling fluid to remove cuttings, common for deeper investigations.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
A dynamic test conducted in boreholes to estimate soil strength and density using a split spoon sampler and a 63.5 kg hammer.
Core Drilling
The extraction of continuous rock or soil samples using a hollow tube, often used in hard strata.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
A static penetration test measuring soil resistance by pushing a cone into the ground to obtain stratigraphy and strength.
Auger Drilling
A shallow drilling method using spiral tools, ideal for soft or loose soils.

🧪 Soil & Rock Testing (In-Situ & Laboratory)

Moisture Content
The percentage of water in a soil sample by weight, important for compaction and strength analysis.
Atterberg Limits
Tests (Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Shrinkage Limit) defining the boundaries of soil consistency and plasticity.
Grain Size Distribution
Sieve or hydrometer analysis to classify soils by particle size (e.g., sand, silt, clay).
Soil Classification
Categorization of soil using systems like the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) or AASHTO based on particle size and plasticity.
Unconfined Compression Test (UCT)
A test used to determine the compressive strength of cohesive soils without lateral confinement.
Triaxial Test
A laboratory test to assess the strength and deformation behavior of soil under controlled stress conditions.
Consolidation Test (Oedometer Test)
Measures settlement behavior of soil under sustained load, used to estimate consolidation rate and settlement.
Direct Shear Test
Determines soil shear strength by measuring resistance along a predefined failure plane.
Bulk Density / Dry Density
The weight of soil solids in a given volume, affecting strength and compaction behavior.

🧱 Soil Mechanics & Ground Behavior

Shear Strength
The soil's resistance to sliding along internal surfaces, key in slope stability and bearing capacity.
Cohesion (c)
Component of shear strength due to inter-particle bonding in clays and silts.
Angle of Internal Friction (ϕ)
Represents soil's resistance due to particle interlocking, important in granular soils.
Permeability
The ease with which water flows through soil, crucial for drainage and groundwater control.
Pore Water Pressure
Pressure of water within soil pores, affecting effective stress and slope stability.
Effective Stress
The portion of total stress borne by the soil skeleton; governs strength and deformation.
Liquefaction
A sudden loss of soil strength due to excess pore water pressure during seismic activity or saturation.

📏 Bearing Capacity & Settlement

Bearing Capacity
The maximum load per unit area that the ground can support without failure.
Allowable Bearing Pressure
The safe load-bearing value including factors of safety to prevent excessive settlement or failure.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
The maximum theoretical pressure a soil can withstand before failure occurs.
Immediate Settlement
Rapid, elastic deformation of soil after loading, typically in granular soils.
Consolidation Settlement
Time-dependent compression of cohesive soils due to pore water expulsion.
Differential Settlement
Uneven settlement of a structure due to varying soil conditions, leading to structural issues.

🛠️ Instrumentation & Monitoring

Inclinometer
Instrument used to measure lateral ground movement, installed in boreholes along slopes or retaining walls.
Piezometer
Device used to monitor groundwater pressure or water table level within soil layers.
Settlement Marker
Surface or embedded marker used to monitor vertical ground movement over time.
Extensometer
Measures changes in the distance between two fixed points, used for monitoring ground displacement.
Vane Shear Test
In-situ test for undrained shear strength of soft cohesive soils using a rotating vane.

🧠 Geotechnical Design Concepts

Factor of Safety (FoS)
Ratio between the resisting forces and driving forces in slope or foundation design, ensuring stability.
Net Positive Suction Pressure
The difference between pore pressure and atmospheric pressure in unsaturated soils affecting soil strength.
Depth of Influence
Vertical depth within which foundation loads significantly affect soil stress or behavior.
Critical Slip Circle
The most likely failure surface in slope stability analysis with the lowest factor of safety.
Geotechnical Risk
The probability of adverse outcomes related to soil conditions, often mitigated through robust investigation and design.

🏢 Glossary of Basement Construction Terms

🏗️ Excavation & Earth Retention

Basement Excavation
The process of removing soil to create a below-ground structure, often requiring shoring and dewatering systems.
Deep Excavation
Any excavation significantly below ground level, typically more than 3–4 meters, often requiring engineered support systems.
Shoring System
Temporary support to retain surrounding soil or structures during excavation, includes struts, walers, and bracing.
Contiguous Bored Pile (CBP) Wall
Retaining wall system made of closely spaced bored piles to support deep excavations and limit ground movement.
Secant Pile Wall
Interlocking piles (hard-soft or hard-hard) drilled to form a water- and earth-retaining barrier for deep basements.
Sheet Pile Wall
Interlocked steel or plastic sheets driven into the ground to retain soil and groundwater for shallow to moderate excavations.
Soldier Pile and Timber Lagging
Retention system using steel H-piles and timber planks between them to support soil faces in temporary excavations.
Cofferdam
A temporary enclosure built in soil or water to exclude groundwater and allow basement or foundation works.

💧 Groundwater Control & Drainage

Dewatering
The removal of groundwater from the excavation area using pumps, wells, or drainage pipes to maintain dry working conditions.
Well Point System
Shallow groundwater control method using a series of small-diameter wells connected to a pump.
Deep Well Dewatering
System using deep wells equipped with submersible pumps to lower the water table for deep basement works.
Sump Pit
A pit used to collect water inside an excavation or basement, usually connected to a pump system.
Subsoil Drainage
Piping or gravel-based system installed behind retaining walls or under slabs to manage groundwater flow.

🧱 Foundation & Structural Elements

Pile Foundation
Deep foundation method using bored, driven, or micropiles to transfer loads from basement structures to deeper soil layers.
Pile Cap
Thick concrete block that distributes structural loads to multiple piles supporting a column or wall.
Basement Slab (Raft Slab)
Reinforced concrete floor slab at the bottom of the basement, designed to resist upward water pressure (uplift).
Retaining Wall
Basement perimeter wall designed to resist soil and hydrostatic pressure.
Strut (Cross Strut)
Horizontal steel member spanning across the excavation to brace opposite walls or piles and prevent inward collapse.
Waler Beam
Horizontal steel or concrete beam that distributes load from the soil to vertical or inclined support systems (e.g., struts).
Ground Anchor (Tieback)
Prestressed steel tendon drilled into soil/rock to resist lateral soil pressure and provide wall support.

🛠️ Waterproofing & Protection

Basement Waterproofing
Application of materials (membranes, coatings, systems) to prevent water ingress into basement walls, slabs, and joints.
Waterproof Membrane
Sheet or liquid-applied material used to protect basement surfaces from water ingress.
Waterstop
Flexible strip embedded in concrete joints to prevent water passage through construction or expansion joints.
Crystalline Waterproofing
Integral waterproofing method where chemicals in the concrete react with water to block capillaries and micro-cracks.
Drainage Mat / Protection Board
Composite layer placed on external walls to protect waterproofing and allow water to flow to designated drainage points.

🧪 Monitoring & Safety

Inclinometer
Instrument used to monitor lateral ground movement adjacent to the basement excavation.
Settlement Marker
Reference point used to monitor vertical movement of ground or nearby structures during basement excavation.
Piezometer
Device to measure groundwater pressure and help control dewatering operations.
Crack Gauge
Device installed across structural cracks to monitor widening or movement over time.
Temporary Access Ramp
Sloped access path for construction vehicles into the basement excavation, removed or converted once permanent access is built.

🧠 Design & Engineering Concepts

Basement Uplift
Upward pressure on the basement slab due to groundwater, requiring design countermeasures such as thicker slabs or anchors.
Temporary Works Design
Structural design of systems used only during construction (e.g., shoring, bracing), distinct from permanent structures.
Permanent Works
Structural components that remain in place after construction is complete (e.g., retaining walls, slab-on-grade).
Excavation Sequence
Planned order in which soil is removed and structural elements installed to ensure safety and stability.
Top-Down Construction
Method where the basement slab and permanent structures are constructed before full excavation is completed below.

📐 Standards & Compliance

Basement Code of Practice (e.g. BS 8002)
Guidelines for the design and construction of embedded retaining walls and deep basements.
Factor of Safety (FoS)
Safety margin used in design to account for uncertainties in soil conditions, loading, and construction quality.

🏞️ Slope Rectification Glossary

🔧 Stabilization Techniques

Soil Nailing
Reinforcement method involving steel bars (nails) inserted and grouted into a slope or excavation to increase stability.
Rock Bolting
Anchoring bars drilled into rock faces to stabilize fractured or weathered rock slopes.
Ground Anchors
High-capacity steel tendons or bars used to transfer tensile loads from unstable slopes to stable ground.
Guniting (Shotcrete)
Sprayed concrete applied to exposed slopes to prevent erosion and surface instability.
Slope Reprofiling
Reshaping an existing slope to reduce angle and increase stability, often followed by vegetation or structural treatment.

🧱 Erosion & Drainage Control

Gabion Wall
Modular wire-mesh boxes filled with rocks used for slope protection, energy dissipation, and retaining functions.
Crib Wall
Interlocking concrete or timber units forming an open-structure retaining wall, allowing drainage and vegetation.
Geotextile
Permeable fabric used for filtration, separation, and reinforcement in slope stabilization systems.
Geogrid
Reinforcement material used in slope engineering to provide tensile strength and confinement of soil.
Riprap
Loose stones or rubble placed on slopes to protect against erosion by water runoff.

💦 Surface & Subsurface Drainage

Horizontal Drain
Perforated pipes installed horizontally into the slope to intercept and reduce groundwater pressure.
Vertical Drain (PVD or Wick Drain)
Prefabricated strip drains installed vertically to expedite consolidation and reduce pore water pressure in soft soils.
Subsoil Drain
Buried drainage system to collect and redirect water away from slopes, reducing saturation and failure risk.
Weep Hole
Openings in retaining structures to relieve hydrostatic pressure by allowing water to escape.
Toe Drain
Drainage system located at the base of a slope or wall to collect and discharge seepage water.

🧠 Analysis & Monitoring Tools

Inclinometer
Instrument used to measure horizontal ground movements within soil or rock to detect slope displacement.
Piezometer
Device to measure pore water pressure within a slope, crucial for assessing drainage needs and failure risk.
Settlement Marker
Fixed reference point used to track vertical movement of ground or slope over time.
Surface Marker
Visual marker placed on a slope to observe any changes in surface movement over time.
Crack Gauge
Device installed across cracks to measure widening or movement, indicating slope distress.

🧮 Engineering & Design Concepts

Factor of Safety (FoS)
Ratio indicating how stable a slope is; a higher FoS means a lower risk of failure.
Slip Circle (Failure Plane)
The hypothetical curved surface along which slope failure may occur in a rotational landslide.
Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM)
Common design method to evaluate slope stability using forces acting on potential failure planes.
Residual Shear Strength
Long-term strength of soil after large shear deformations; important for analyzing reactivated landslides.
Effective Stress
The portion of total stress carried by the soil skeleton; key in slope stability and consolidation analysis.

📌 Construction & Rectification Activities

Underpinning of Slope Footings
Strengthening or deepening foundations at slope bases to prevent movement or tilting.
Debris Removal
Clearing unstable or failed material from slopes to prevent secondary failures and improve access.
Grouting (Cavity / Pressure)
Injection of cementitious materials into voids or weak zones to improve ground strength.
Revegetation / Bioengineering
Use of plants or vegetative cover to control erosion, improve drainage, and stabilize slopes naturally.

🛑 Common Slope Failure Terms

Landslide
Downward movement of soil, rock, or debris due to gravity, often triggered by rain or poor drainage.
Creep
Slow, continuous movement of soil or slope over time, often unnoticed until severe.
Erosion
Wearing away of slope surface by water, wind, or gravity, leading to instability.
Sloughing
Localized surface failure in slopes, typically involving shallow and small-scale movements.

🏗️ Underpinning Glossary

🔨 Underpinning Techniques

Underpinning
A method to strengthen or deepen existing foundations, typically due to subsidence, change in load, or adjacent excavation.
Mass Concrete Underpinning
Traditional method where successive sections under a foundation are excavated and filled with concrete to increase depth.
Micropile Underpinning
Use of small-diameter piles to transfer loads from existing foundations to deeper, more stable soil or rock layers.
Jack Pile Underpinning
Driven piles installed below foundations using jacking force; common in low headroom or confined spaces.
Beam and Base Underpinning
Combines a reinforced concrete beam spanning between new concrete bases to support the existing foundation.
Pynford Stool (Needle & Pad) Underpinning
Temporary or permanent technique using steel needles to support the load while new support is constructed below.
Screw Pile Underpinning
Uses helical piles that are screwed into the ground to support foundations, often with minimal vibration.
Resin Injection Underpinning
A chemical-based method injecting expansive resins beneath foundations to fill voids and improve ground bearing.

🧱 Structural & Foundation Terms

Footing
The base or bottom part of a foundation that spreads the load of the building onto the soil.
Pile Cap
A concrete element that sits atop piles and distributes structural loads from columns or walls.
Raft Foundation
A large concrete slab that supports multiple columns or walls, used where soil has low bearing capacity.
Pad Foundation
Isolated footing that supports individual columns; may be underpinned when soil below becomes weak.
Settlement
Downward movement of a structure due to compression of soil beneath it. Can be uniform or differential.
Differential Settlement
Uneven settling of a structure’s foundation, leading to cracks and structural distortion.

🧠 Diagnosis & Engineering Concepts

Structural Distress
Signs of foundation failure including cracks, wall tilting, sticking doors/windows, or visible movement.
Load Transfer
The process of redirecting building loads from existing weak foundations to new or deeper supports.
Bearing Capacity
The maximum load that the soil can carry without failing.
Soil Investigation (SI)
Subsurface exploration conducted to assess soil properties before underpinning or foundation design.
Void Formation
Occurs when soil beneath the foundation erodes or collapses, leading to sudden loss of support.
Live Load / Dead Load
Live Load: Temporary loads like occupants or furniture. Dead Load: Permanent structural loads like walls, slabs.

🔍 Monitoring & Testing

Crack Monitoring Gauge
A device used to measure changes in cracks over time, indicating ongoing or stabilized movement.
Level Datum
A fixed reference point used in settlement or vertical displacement monitoring.
Tiltmeter
Instrument used to measure the angle of tilt or rotation of a structure, often installed on cracked or moving walls.
Load Testing
The process of applying test loads to verify the capacity of underpinning systems like micropiles.

⚠️ Common Underpinning Issues

Subsidence
Sinking of ground due to loss of moisture, mining voids, or poor soil compaction.
Heave
Upward movement of soil or foundation, typically due to clay expansion after drying/wetting cycles.
Adjacent Excavation Risk
Structural stress or settlement caused by nearby construction or basement works.
Poor Compaction
Loose soil not adequately compressed during previous construction, leading to settlement risk.
Root Intrusion
Tree roots absorbing moisture and desiccating clay soils, leading to shrinkage and foundation movement.

🛠️ Remedial Measures

Grouting (Compaction/Cavity)
Used to improve ground strength, fill voids, or reduce permeability under existing foundations.
Steel Brackets / Underpinning Braces
Custom supports fixed to existing foundations to transfer loads to new piles or supports.
Shoring
Temporary supports used during underpinning works to prevent movement or collapse of walls.
Needle Beam
A horizontal beam used to temporarily carry load during excavation or underpinning below a wall.

🛠️ Rectification Works

Techniques and terminology used to correct structural or ground-related defects in buildings, slopes, and retaining systems. A general term for corrective construction activities carried out to restore stability, function, or alignment of a structure affected by settlement, movement, tilting, or failure.

Underpinning

Strengthening the foundation of existing structures to increase depth or load capacity. A method used to strengthen or deepen an existing foundation, transferring structural loads to deeper or more stable ground. It is commonly used to stop or prevent further settlement.

Retaining Wall Realignment

Process of correcting tilted or failed retaining walls to restore function and stability.

Releveling

The process of adjusting and realigning a settled or tilted structure, often involving jacking, grout injection, or micro-adjustments beneath slabs or foundations.

Wall Realignment

The correction of leaning or bulging retaining walls, typically involving bracing, ground anchors, or partial rebuilding to restore structural integrity.

Crack Injection

A remedial method for sealing structural cracks using epoxy or polyurethane resins, often applied in walls, beams, or slabs to restore load continuity and prevent water ingress.

Soil Strengthening

Improvement of weak or soft soil beneath existing structures using techniques such as compaction grouting, jet grouting, or chemical injection to increase bearing capacity and reduce settlement.

Load Transfer

The deliberate re-distribution of structural loads from an unstable or failing element to a new support system (e.g., micropiles or underpinning blocks).

Void Filling (Cavity Grouting)

Injection of grout or foam into underground voids or sinkholes that have caused structural settlement or ground collapse beneath buildings.

Tilted Structure Correction

Specialist rectification for leaning buildings or columns, typically involving strategic underpinning, jacking, or support reconfiguration.

Structural Distress

Visible signs of damage such as cracks, tilting, buckling, or settlement in walls, floors, or foundations, usually indicating the need for rectification.

📈 Ground Monitoring & Instrumentation

Tools and systems used to monitor ground movement, water pressure, settlement, and structural stability in geotechnical works.

Inclinometer

A device installed in a vertical or inclined borehole to measure lateral ground movement over time. Often used to monitor slopes, retaining walls, and deep excavations for signs of displacement.

Inclinometer Casing

A grooved PVC or steel pipe placed in a borehole to guide the inclinometer probe and provide reference for repeated measurements.

Piezometer

An instrument used to measure groundwater level or pore water pressure within soil layers. Essential for monitoring drainage effectiveness and slope safety.

Vibrating Wire Piezometer

A common type of piezometer that uses a vibrating wire sensor to accurately and remotely record changes in pore pressure over time.

Settlement Marker

A physical reference point (on ground or structure) used to monitor vertical movement (settlement or heave) of soil or foundations over time.

Optical Level / Total Station

Instruments used to precisely track elevation changes of settlement markers or other structures as part of a monitoring program.

Extensometer

A sensor installed in soil or rock mass to measure horizontal or vertical deformation between fixed anchor points—especially useful in tunnels, slopes, or deep excavations.

Tiltmeter

A device used to measure angular tilt or rotation of a structure or wall. Often attached to buildings near excavation zones or retaining walls.

Strain Gauge

A sensor that measures strain or deformation in structural elements like piles, beams, or anchors. Used to evaluate load distribution or stress points.

Crack Gauge

A small mechanical or digital device installed across a structural crack to monitor changes in crack width over time.

Load Cell

A sensor used to measure applied force, typically installed on ground anchors, struts, or pile heads during load testing or monitoring.

Data Logger

An electronic device that collects and stores readings from various instruments like piezometers, inclinometers, and load cells. Can be configured for remote or real-time monitoring.

Telemetry Monitoring System

A wireless system that transmits data from site instruments to a central dashboard or cloud server, enabling remote, real-time monitoring and alerts.

🌱 Ground Improvement Works

Techniques used to enhance the engineering properties of soil to make it more suitable for construction.

Ground Improvement

A broad category of techniques used to increase the strength, stiffness, or drainage capacity of soil without removing and replacing it. Commonly applied to support foundations, embankments, and retaining structures, especially in soft or loose ground.

Preloading (Surcharge Loading)

Involves placing temporary weight (e.g. soil fill) over the construction site to accelerate settlement and expel excess pore water. Often used in conjunction with vertical drains in clayey soils to minimize post-construction settlement.

Vertical Drains (PVD / Wick Drains)

Prefabricated synthetic drains installed vertically to channel water from clay layers to the surface, speeding up consolidation during preloading.

Jet Grouting

A high-pressure ground improvement method where cement slurry is injected and mixed in-situ with soil to form columns or panels of soilcrete, increasing strength and reducing permeability.

Stone Columns (Vibro Replacement)

Columns made by vibrating and replacing soil with crushed stone, improving bearing capacity and drainage in loose or weak soils.

Dynamic Compaction

Technique involving repeated dropping of heavy weights on the ground surface to densify granular soils at depth.

🧱 Diaphragm Wall Construction Glossary

A reinforced concrete wall system constructed in the ground to provide earth retention and water cutoff for deep excavations.

Diaphragm Wall (D-Wall)

A continuous, reinforced concrete wall constructed in deep, narrow trenches, used to retain soil and control groundwater in deep excavations. It is ideal for basements, shafts, tunnels, and high-rise foundations in dense urban areas or soft ground.

Panel Construction

Diaphragm walls are built in individual panels, typically 2.5m to 7m wide, using a stop-end system to allow sequential casting and joint formation.

Trench Excavation

A vertical trench is excavated using a mechanical or hydraulic grab, often under slurry (bentonite or polymer) to stabilize the walls before concreting.

Support Fluid (Bentonite or Polymer Slurry)

A suspension used to prevent trench collapse during excavation by exerting hydraulic pressure against the trench walls.

Reinforcement Cage

A preassembled steel rebar cage is lowered into the trench before concreting to provide structural strength to the wall.

Tremie Concrete Placement

Concrete is poured into the trench from the bottom-up using a tremie pipe, displacing slurry while avoiding segregation and ensuring continuity.

Guide Wall

A shallow concrete wall cast at the surface to guide excavation machinery, maintain trench alignment, and secure stop-end systems.

Stop-End (Waterbar Formwork)

A prefabricated steel or polymer element used between panels to create a construction joint and ensure water tightness between diaphragm wall panels.

Desanding Plant

A processing system that cleans and recycles slurry, removing soil particles before reusing the support fluid.

Hydraulic Grab / Clam Shell

A heavy-duty excavator tool suspended by crane and used to excavate diaphragm wall trenches vertically with precision.

Diaphragm Wall Thickness

Typical wall thickness ranges from 600 mm to 1500 mm, selected based on excavation depth, soil condition, and design load.

Cut-off Wall Function

Diaphragm walls serve a dual purpose of earth retention and groundwater cutoff, especially effective in high water table areas.

Top-Down Construction Compatibility

Diaphragm walls are often used in top-down basement construction, where slabs are cast level by level while excavation continues below.

🛠️ Basic Specialist Geotechnical Equipment

Essential machinery, rigs, and tools used in piling, grouting, monitoring, and geotechnical construction.

Drilling Rig

A core machine used to bore holes into the ground for soil investigation, micropiles, caissons, or grouting works. Available in various sizes for low headroom, slope access, or heavy-duty operations.

Tripod Rig

A compact, manually operated three-legged drilling setup used for light-duty boreholes, particularly for soil investigation or micropiles in tight or hard-to-reach areas.

Rotary Wash Boring Machine

Used for boring through soft to medium soils by circulating drilling fluid (usually water or bentonite) to carry cuttings to the surface.

Crawler Drilling Rig

A self-propelled machine mounted on crawler tracks, used for slope stabilization, ground anchor installation, and horizontal drain boring.

Micropile Drill Rig

A specialized compact drilling machine capable of installing small-diameter piles in confined or restricted-access areas (e.g. basements or behind existing buildings).

Hydraulic Pile Jacking Machine

Used in jack-in piling or underpinning, this system drives precast or steel piles using hydraulic pressure rather than impact hammers.

Pressure Grouting Pump

High-pressure pump system used to inject grout into soil or rock, suitable for TAM grouting, cavity filling, or soil strengthening.

Jet Grouting System

A machine that uses high-pressure fluid jets to mix soil in-situ with cement slurry, forming soilcrete columns to improve strength and reduce permeability.

Anchor Stressing Jack

Hydraulic equipment used to tension ground anchors or soil nails during installation. Essential in retaining wall and slope stabilization projects.

Inclinometer Casing & Readout Unit

A monitoring system installed in boreholes to track lateral ground movement over time, commonly used near retaining walls and slopes.

Piezometer

A device used to measure groundwater pressure or pore water pressure in soil layers. Critical for slope safety and dewatering evaluation.

Settlement Marker

A surface or subsurface point used to monitor vertical movement (settlement) of soil or structures during and after construction.

Concrete Tremie Pipe

Used in bored pile construction, it allows concrete to be poured from the bottom up inside water- or slurry-filled boreholes, preventing segregation.

Reinforcement Cage Fabrication Jig

A steel frame used in workshops or on-site to assemble steel reinforcement cages accurately and efficiently for piles or columns.

🧾 Construction Industry Legal & Contractual Glossary

📑 Tender & Pre-Contract Phase

Tender
A formal offer to execute work for a price, submitted in response to an invitation from a client or consultant.
Tender Document
A package containing drawings, specifications, contract terms, and forms used for pricing and bidding a project.
Bill of Quantities (BQ / BOQ)
A document prepared by the QS detailing the quantities of work items and materials required for the project.
Letter of Intent (LOI)
A preliminary letter issued to indicate the client’s intention to award the contract, but not legally binding in most cases.
Letter of Award (LOA)
A formal document that confirms contract award and initiates legal obligations between contractor and client.
Request for Quotation (RFQ)
A document sent to suppliers or subcontractors asking for a price proposal for a specific scope of work.
Preliminary Cost Estimate
A rough estimate prepared before final design to gauge feasibility and budget.
Earnest Deposit
A sum of money paid by a client to demonstrate serious intent before engaging in design or costing services (Shinei-style pre-engagement).

📜 Contract & Legal Terms

Contract Agreement
A legally binding document signed by client and contractor detailing scope, terms, conditions, and obligations.
Main Contractor
The principal contractor appointed by the client to execute and manage the full scope of construction.
Subcontractor
A contractor engaged by the main contractor to perform a specific part of the overall work.
Scope of Works
A detailed description of the tasks, responsibilities, and deliverables expected from a contractor.
Variation Order (VO)
A change in the scope of work after contract signing, leading to additional or reduced work and cost adjustments.
Extension of Time (EOT)
A request or approval to extend the project completion date due to delays beyond the contractor’s control.
Liquidated Ascertained Damages (LAD)
Penalty fees charged per day to the contractor for delay in completing works beyond the agreed time.
Time at Large
A situation where the contract no longer has a fixed completion date, often due to delays without proper extension procedures.
Defects Liability Period (DLP)
A post-completion period during which the contractor must rectify any defects at no cost.
Retention Sum
A percentage of payment withheld by the client until the end of DLP to ensure defect rectification.

📋 Project Operations & Execution

Site Possession / Site Handover
The formal date when the contractor gains access to begin work on-site.
Method Statement
A detailed plan outlining how specific construction tasks will be safely and effectively carried out.
Work Programme (Construction Schedule)
Timeline of construction activities with milestones, often created using software like MS Project or Primavera.
Progress Claim
Monthly claim submitted by the contractor to the client for work completed to date, subject to verification.
Interim Certificate
A document issued by the consultant certifying the amount due for payment in each progress claim.
Final Account
The final financial settlement between client and contractor after project completion, incorporating all variations, claims, and adjustments.

🧮 Claims & Disputes

Claim
A formal request for additional time, cost, or both, due to unforeseen events or changes in scope.
Disruption
Loss of productivity or inefficiency due to events affecting workflow, often grounds for a claim.
Acceleration
Efforts made to speed up the works, often incurring extra costs – may be instructed or initiated by the contractor.
Delay Analysis
A technical report assessing the cause and effect of delays, used to support EOT or LAD claims.
Arbitration
A legal dispute resolution method outside of court, typically governed by the Arbitration Act (Malaysia).
Adjudication
A fast-track dispute resolution process under the Construction Industry Payment and Adjudication Act (CIPAA 2012).
CIPAA (Malaysia)
Construction Industry Payment and Adjudication Act 2012, used to resolve payment disputes quickly.
Quantum Meruit
A legal principle allowing a contractor to be paid for work done even without a formal agreement, under fair value.

🧰 Procurement & Materials

Purchase Order (PO)
A formal order issued by the contractor to a supplier for delivery of materials or equipment.
Delivery Order (DO)
Document issued upon delivery of materials to site for confirmation and quantity verification.
Material Submittal
Documents submitted for consultant/client approval before using a material in the project.
Site Instruction (SI)
A written directive from the consultant to the contractor regarding minor changes or clarifications during construction.

📊 Project Reporting & Handover

Daily Site Report (DSR)
A daily record of work progress, manpower, machinery, weather, and site issues.
Inspection Request (IR)
A formal notice requesting the consultant to inspect a completed portion of work before proceeding to the next stage.
Completion Certificate
Issued to confirm that work is completed according to contract and ready for handover.
Taking Over Certificate (TOC)
Formal documentation marking the client’s acceptance of the completed works, triggering the start of DLP.

🏛️ Construction, Engineering & Industry Bodies

A curated list of organizations that govern, support, or influence construction and geotechnical practices in Malaysia and beyond.

🇲🇾 Key Malaysian Industry Bodies

Acronym - Full Name - Role / Relevance

CIDB Construction Industry Development Board

Regulates and develops Malaysia’s construction industry. All contractors must be registered with CIDB.

BEM Board of Engineers Malaysia

Governing body for professional engineers and engineering firms; licenses engineers and monitors professional ethics.

DOSH (JKKP) Department of Occupational Safety and Health

Enforces safety regulations in construction and ensures compliance with OSH standards.

JPS Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (Dept. of Irrigation & Drainage)

Oversees drainage, flood control, and erosion matters, often involved in slope and water-sensitive projects.

JKR Jabatan Kerja Raya (Public Works Department)

Malaysia’s federal technical agency for infrastructure development; often the project owner for public tenders.

LPBM Lembaga Pembangunan Industri Pembinaan Malaysia

Malay term often used interchangeably with CIDB, especially in Bahasa Malaysia documents.

Lembaga Arkitek Malaysia (LAM) Board of Architects Malaysia

Regulates the architectural profession and works closely with engineers on built environment standards.

🌏 Regional & International Bodies

Acronym - Full Name - Role / Relevance

ICE Institution of Civil Engineers (UK)

Prestigious professional body for civil engineers; many Malaysian engineers hold ICE or IStructE qualifications.

IStructE Institution of Structural Engineers (UK)

Governs structural engineering profession worldwide, with Malaysian chapter presence.

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

Publishes widely used standards for structural, foundation, and geotechnical design.

ACI American Concrete Institute

Sets global concrete construction and materials standards; used in pile design and concrete QA/QC.

G-I (ASCE) Geo-Institute

ASCE’s division dedicated to geotechnical engineering professionals and education.

IFCEE International Foundations Congress & Equipment

ExpoInternational geotechnical and foundations event, connecting contractors, designers, and suppliers.

🤝 Professional Associations & Trade Bodies

Acronym - Full Name- Role / Relevance

MBAM Master Builders Association Malaysia

Trade association representing contractors, especially general builders and civil contractors.

REHDA Real Estate and Housing Developers’ Association Malaysia

Influential in residential and commercial property development

MIID Malaysian Institute of Interior Designers

Often works with builders and structural teams during finishing and conversion projects.

MGBC Malaysia Green Building Council

Promotes green and sustainable construction practices in Malaysia.

FEM Federation of Engineering Institutions of Asia and the Pacific (FEIAP)

Regional body promoting engineering excellence and mobility among ASEAN/APAC countries.

🧠 Certifications & Construction Standards

Entity - Purpose - MS Standards

(SIRIM / DSM)

Malaysian Standards used for concrete, pile testing, earthworks, and safety (e.g. MS 1199 for pile tests).

Eurocode 7 / EC7

European standard used in geotechnical design, increasingly applied in Malaysia.

ISO 9001 / ISO 45001

Quality and safety certifications relevant to construction firms seeking international standards.

Complete Geotechnical Engineering Glossary

Navigate to relevant sections

⭕ Glossary of Pile Types

⚙️ Common Terms Across Pile Types

🪖 General Geotechnical Terms

The maximum load a soil can support without failure.

Resistance of soil to shearing forces; key for slope and foundation design.

Time-dependent settlement of soil due to expulsion of pore water.

Ability of soil to allow water flow through its pores.

Structure that holds back soil or rock from a building, structure, or area.

Pressure exerted by soil when it moves away from a retaining structure.

Pressure exerted by soil resisting movement into it.

Margin against failure in design, often >1.5 for slopes or foundations.

Site-specific subsurface exploration using drilling, sampling, and lab testing.

The maximum load a pile or foundation element is designed to carry safely under normal service conditions. It is usually calculated by applying a factor of safety to the ultimate load capacity.

🏗️ Micropile Glossary

Micropile (Mini Pile / Pin Pile)

🧩 Bored Pile (Drilled Shaft)

🕳️ Caisson Pile (Hand-Dug Caisson)

📐 General Piling Terms

🏗️ Basic Civil Works

🧱 Retaining & Slope-Related Structures

🌍 Site Preparation & Earthworks

🧰 Drainage & Groundwater Control

🔍 Monitoring & Site Instruments

🧱 Retaining Wall Glossary

🌏 Earthworks

📏 Excavation Types

🏔️ Filling & Compaction

⛏️ Slope & Embankment Works

☑️ Pile Testing and Load Testing Glossary

🔩 General Testing Categories

🏗️ Static Load Test Components

📐 Dynamic Load Testing Terms

📊 Lateral Load Testing Terms

🛠️ Integrity & Nondestructive Testing

⚙️ Typical Pile Testing Equipment

📏 Relevant Standards & Guidelines

🕵🏽 Site Investigation & Exploration

🧪 Soil & Rock Testing (In-Situ & Laboratory)

🧱 Soil Mechanics & Ground Behavior

🏢 Glossary of Basement Construction Terms

🏗️ Excavation & Earth Retention

🛠️ Waterproofing & Protection

🧪 Monitoring & Safety

🧠 Design & Engineering Concepts

📐 Standards & Compliance

🏞️ Slope Rectification Glossary

🔧 Stabilization Techniques

🧱 Erosion & Drainage Control

💦 Surface & Subsurface Drainage

🧠 Analysis & Monitoring Tools

🧮 Engineering & Design Concepts

📌 Construction & Rectification Activities

🛑 Common Slope Failure Terms

🏗️ Underpinning Glossary

🔨 Underpinning Techniques

🧱 Structural & Foundation Terms

🧠 Diagnosis & Engineering Concepts

🔍 Monitoring & Testing

⚠️ Common Underpinning Issues

🛠️ Remedial Measures

🛠️ Rectification Works

💦 Grouting Techniques

📈 Ground Monitoring & Instrumentation

Inclinometer

Inclinometer Casing

Piezometer

Vibrating Wire Piezometer

Settlement Marker

Optical Level / Total Station

Extensometer

Tiltmeter

Strain Gauge

Crack Gauge

Load Cell

Data Logger

Telemetry Monitoring System

🌱 Ground Improvement Works

A broad category of techniques used to increase the strength, stiffness, or drainage capacity of soil without removing and replacing it. Commonly applied to support foundations, embankments, and retaining structures, especially in soft or loose ground.